Nanotechnology in Modern Physics: Materials, Devices, and Applications

Abstract

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative field within modern physics, enabling the manipulation and understanding of materials at scales between 1 and 100 nanometers. At these dimensions, classical physical laws often fail, giving way to quantum mechanical phenomena, size-dependent properties, and surface-dominated effects. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of nanomaterials, including zero, one, two, and three-dimensional systems, highlighting their unique electrical, optical, magnetic, and mechanical properties. Fundamental nanoscale physics, such as quantum confinement, ballistic transport, and enhanced surface interactions, is discussed to explain the deviations from bulk behavior. The role of nanotechnology in device applications is examined through nanoelectronic devices like Single Electron Transistors and MOSFETs, nanosensors, and optoelectronic components, demonstrating how quantum effects and nanoscale interactions influence performance. Additionally, the paper explores the integration of nanomaterials in energy systems, including nanostructured solar cells, lithium-ion batteries, and supercapacitors, as well as in medical and biological applications such as targeted drug delivery, nanoparticle-based imaging, and biosensing. Environmental and space applications are also addressed, emphasizing the importance of nanostructures in pollution detection, lightweight composites, and radiation-resistant materials. Experimental techniques, including Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, Atomic Force Microscopy, electron microscopy, and spectroscopic characterization, are discussed for their essential role in analyzing nanomaterials and validating theoretical models. Overall, this paper highlights the interplay between nanoscale physics, material properties, and practical applications, providing a detailed understanding of the capabilities of nanotechnology in modern physics.