Mathematical and Computational Modeling of Thermal Dynamics in Human Skin and Skeletal Muscle During Rhythmic Contractions

Abstract

Thermal dynamics in human skin and skeletal muscle are central to understanding physiological responses during exercise, thermoregulation, and clinical interventions such as hyperthermia therapy or rehabilitation. Rhythmic muscle contractions, as observed during physical activity, induce complex heat generation, transfer, and dissipation processes that interact with blood perfusion, metabolic activity, and environmental conditions. This review synthesizes current mathematical and computational models that describe thermal behavior in skin and skeletal muscle, emphasizing mechanisms such as conduction, convection, perfusion, and metabolic heat production. We discuss models ranging from simplified bioheat equations to advanced Multiphysics simulations, highlight the role of boundary conditions, heterogeneity of tissue properties, and evaluate their applications in sports science, medical diagnostics, and therapeutic interventions. Finally, we identify key challenges and future directions for accurately capturing the coupled thermomechanical dynamics during rhythmic muscular activity.